I.     Nuclear Reactions: 

   A.    Reactions in which an atomic nucleus changes, resulting in the formation of a new nucleus. 

   B.    Involve extremely large amounts of energy. 

   C.    Emit particles, releasing different types of radiation. For instance, alpha particle emission results in alpha particle radiation. Other particles include beta                    particles and positrons. 

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II.    Nuclear Transmutation:

   A.    A nuclear reaction in which the nucleus is bombarded by neutrons, protons, or some other particle in order to create a new nucleus. 

   B.    Light elements are generally not radioactive because they are generally stable, but they can become radioactive synthetically when bombarded with the                    appropriate particles.  

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III.    Radioactivity: the spontaneous emission (by some elements) of particles and/or electromagnetic radiation (a kind of energy) as an unstable atomic nucleus              decomposes. This can occur if the nucleus of an element is unstable. 

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IV.    Fission:

   A.     The division of a heavy nucleus (mass number > 200 amu) into small ones. Neutrons are often produced as well. 

   B.    In fission reactions of U-235, the neutrons produced allow for a nuclear chain reaction; the process sustains itself. Each neutron produced causes another                  fission event. In order for this to happen, a critical mass of fissionable material is required. Note the definition of critical mass: the amount of fissile                        material needed for sustenance of nuclear reactions. 

   C.    Liberates large quantities of energy. 

   D.    Utilized in the atomic bomb, which involves uncontrolled chain reactions, and in nuclear reactors, which involve controlled chain reactions. 

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V.    Fusion:

   A.    The process of combining small nuclei into a large one. 

   B.    In order to initiate such reactions—to force particles close enough so that they can fuse, overcoming repulsive forces—very high temperatures are required. 

   C.    Thermonuclear fusion: the process of using extremely high temperatures in order to result in fusion.  

   D.    During this process, large quantities of energy are released because the larger nucleus is less stable than its products. 

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VI.    Radioactive Decay:

   A.    May happen through a variety of ways—through alpha particle emission, beta particle emission, fission, gamma ray production, etc.  

   B.    Radioactive Decay Series: a sequence of decaying processes that result in the formation of a stable isotope. 

   C.    Decaying processes are considered first order reactions. 

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VII.    Electron Capture: the process in which an electron from an inner orbital (usually the 1s orbital) is captured by the nucleus of an element, acting as a                          reactant, to produce a new species. 

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VIII.     Isotopes of Hydrogen:

   A.    Deuterium/D: has an atomic number 1 (which identifies it as hydrogen) and a mass number 2 (instead of 1). Therefore, it has 1 proton and 1 neutron.

   B.    Tritium/T: has an atomic number 1 and a mass number 3. Therefore, it has 1 proton and 2 neutrons.

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IX.    Nuclear Transformation: occurs when one nucleus changes into another. All nuclear reactions are nuclear transformations.

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X.    Radiocarbon Dating/Carbon Dating:

   A.    A method that uses the natural radioactivity of C-14 to determine the age of ancient materials with plant or animal origin (matter that was once living). 

   B.    A continuous production of C-14 occurs naturally in the upper atmosphere when N-14 is bombarded with high energy neutrons. As a result, the amount of             C-14 in the atmosphere is considered constant; it is assumed that the amount of C-14 in the air has not changed throughout the ages.

   C.    This C-14 is then incorporated into living things through a variety means. For instance, plants take in C-14 because they are exposed to the atmosphere.                  Animals then eat the plants, consuming the C-14 as well. Additionally, C-14 combines with oxygen, producing CO2, which plays a role in all living things.            Scientists presume that the once living plant or animal’s concentration of C-14 in the body was in equilibrium with the atmosphere. When the plant or                      animal dies, C-14 intake ceases and begins to decay. By understanding how C-14 decays (its half life) and measuring the amount of C-14 left in the organic            material, scientists can determine the time of death and its age. 

   D.    Like all processes of decay, C-14 decay is a first order reaction. 

   E.    Other methods of radioactive dating include uranium-238 and potassium-40.